Chapter 5 Patterns Of Social Inequality And Exclusion

What Is Social About Social Inequality And Exclusion?

Social inequality and exclusion are not merely individual attributes but are rooted in societal structures and group dynamics. They are characterized as social because they affect entire groups, are systematic and patterned, and are often linked to economic disparities, though not exclusively so. Sociologists use the term 'social stratification' to describe systems that rank categories of people hierarchically, shaping their identities, experiences, and access to resources.

Key principles of social stratification include:

• Societal Characteristic: It's a system that unequally distributes resources across society, not just a result of individual differences.
• Persistence Over Generations: Social positions and inequalities are often inherited, reinforced by endogamy (marriage within one's group).
• Ideological Support: Systems of inequality are often justified by beliefs and ideologies that portray them as fair or inevitable.

Prejudice (pre-conceived negative attitudes) and stereotypes (fixed, overgeneralized beliefs about groups) often underpin discrimination (actual unequal behavior). Social exclusion refers to systemic barriers preventing full participation in society, affecting access to education, healthcare, employment, and other essential services, regardless of individual desire.

Activity 5.1 encourages rethinking common views on hard work and life chances by comparing the daily routines of people from different socio-economic backgrounds.

Activity 5.2 involves analyzing fictional portrayals for prejudice and discussing its intentionality.

Social Inequality

Social inequality refers to the unequal distribution of valued resources like money, property, education, health, and power. These resources exist in three forms: economic capital (assets, income), cultural capital (education, status), and social capital (networks, associations). While individual talent and effort play a role, societal structures largely produce and perpetuate social inequality.

Social Exclusion

Social exclusion involves processes that cut individuals or groups off from full participation in wider society, limiting their access to desirable resources and opportunities like education, healthcare, and employment. It is systematic and often involuntary, though prolonged exclusion can lead to acceptance of marginalized status.

Activity 5.3 suggests identifying legal provisions related to caste discrimination and untouchability in the Indian Constitution.

Box 5.1b: Race and Caste – A Cross-Cultural Comparison contrasts caste in India with apartheid in South Africa, highlighting similarities in racial/caste-based stratification, discrimination, and struggles for equality.

Activity 5.4 encourages research on social reformers and their impact on contemporary life and constitutional provisions.

Caste And Tribe – Systems Justifying And Perpetuating Inequality

The Caste System As A Discriminatory System

The caste system is a historically significant institution in India that legitimizes and enforces discrimination based on birth. It historically dictated occupation and social status, with rigid rules of hierarchy, purity, pollution, endogamy, and occupational segregation. While modern changes have weakened some aspects, caste continues to influence economic and social status at a macro level, with privileged sections predominantly from upper castes and disadvantaged sections from lower castes.

Tables 1 and 2 illustrate the significant disparities in poverty and affluence across different caste/community groups in rural and urban India, showing the persistent link between caste and socio-economic status.

Box 5.2: The Everyday Ordeal of a Dalit Scavenger provides a stark example of the extreme exclusion, humiliation, and exploitation faced by Dalits, even in modern India.

Exercise for Tables 1 and 2 guides students to analyze the data on poverty and affluence across caste groups.

The Other Backward Classes

The Other Backward Classes (OBCs) are a diverse group identified as socially and educationally backward, falling between the "forward" castes and Dalits. Their recognition stems from constitutional provisions aimed at addressing social disadvantages. The Mandal Commission's report in 1990 led to reservations for OBCs in government jobs and education, significantly impacting national politics and sparking movements for social justice, particularly among the politicized OBC population.

Adivasi Struggles

Adivasis, or 'original inhabitants,' are indigenous communities historically associated with forest and hill regions. Their classification has been complex, debated as distinct from or part of a continuum with caste society. Colonial policies and post-independence development projects (mining, dams) have often led to the dispossession of Adivasi lands, loss of forests, displacement, and cultural disruption, fueling struggles for resource control and autonomy. Movements like those for Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh statehood represent significant achievements, while ongoing challenges persist in managing tribal identities and resisting exploitation.

Box 5.5: In the Name of Development — Adivasis in the Line of Fire vividly describes the Kalinganagar incident, highlighting the conflict between developmental projects and Adivasi rights over land and resources.

Activity 5.3 suggests creating a chart of laws related to caste discrimination. Activity 5.10 discusses the social constitution of disability.

Struggle For Women’s Equality And Rights

Gender inequality, often perceived as natural due to biological differences, is primarily a social construct. Historical and cross-cultural evidence, like matrilineal societies (Khasi, Nair), demonstrates that gender roles and power structures are not biologically determined. Nineteenth-century social reform movements, led by figures like Raja Rammohun Roy, Ranade, and Jotiba Phule, challenged traditional practices like Sati, child marriage, and widow remarriage, advocating for women's rights, education, and equality.

These movements drew inspiration from both Western democratic ideals and Indian traditions. Post-independence, the nationalist movement and the Constitution enshrined principles of gender equality in citizenship, public employment, and political rights. In the 1970s and beyond, women's movements addressed contemporary issues like rape, dowry deaths, media representation, and the impact of unequal development. The declining child sex ratio in recent times highlights ongoing gender bias and new challenges to equality.

Box 5.6: From Stree Purush Tulana and Box 5.7: From Sultana’s Dream showcase early feminist writings by Tarabai Shinde and Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain, challenging patriarchal norms and envisioning alternative gender roles.

Activity 5.5 suggests researching women's organizations and historical female figures involved in social reform or nationalist movements.

The Struggles Of The Disabled

Individuals with disabilities (differently abled) face social exclusion not just due to impairments but because societal structures often fail to accommodate their needs. Public perception commonly views disability as a biological issue, a victim status, linked to personal self-perception, and requiring external help. Culturally, disability can be seen as fate or retribution for past karma.

However, the term 'disabled' itself is challenged, with newer terms like 'mentally challenged' or 'visually impaired' gaining acceptance. Sociologists argue that disablement often stems from societal structures—inaccessible buildings, segregated education, and limited employment opportunities—rather than solely from individual impairment. The intersection of disability and poverty is significant, as poor individuals are more likely to experience disability due to factors like malnutrition and inadequate healthcare, and disability, in turn, exacerbates poverty.

Recent efforts, including government recognition and the advocacy of disabled individuals themselves, are raising awareness and promoting inclusive practices in education and public spaces. The Census 2011 included improved data collection on disability.

Box 5.8: Approach adopted for the disabled in Census 2011 outlines measures taken for better data collection. Box 5.9: 'Disabled-unfriendly' Courts highlights societal barriers faced by disabled individuals. Box 5.10 discusses educational challenges and parental expectations regarding disabled children.

Activity 5.8 involves researching traditional depictions of the disabled and identifying negative societal attitudes. Activity 5.9 asks students to analyze how disability is socially constructed.